Art+Portable+Objects

ART Portable Objects: Coins and Glass   Beginning with the Achaemenian Dynasty and the leadership of King Darius I, the Persian Empire was able to demonstrate an impressive and unique artistic style and technique. During the Sasanian period, Persians were able to improve artwork by creating unique characteristics that represented their heritage and beliefs. Elements of Zoroastrianism, the dominant religion before the Arab conquest were portrayed in many of their works. The introduction of Islam by the Arab invasion in the seventh century marked the beginning of a period characterized by change and innovations that could possibly pose as a threat to Persian culture. However, a rtwork on portable objects in the Sasanian Empire retained a strong Persian style although the transition to Islam did impact certain aspects of visual representation. Coins and glass objects provide evidence for this transition and reveal the changes that the Persian Empire went through after the collapse of the Sasanian dynasty. In tracing the history of Persian coins we can observe the distinct and strategic representation of art unique to the Persian Empire which was later influenced by the Islamic conquest. Coins were not only used for an economical purpose, but also for religious and political propaganda. Representations of leadership and command were important for the Empire’s use of control and domination to govern people and the neighboring rivals. The meaningful context and message of Persian coins is attributed to their intention of illustrating power and authority. Coinage is an indisputable form of miniature art used as evidence of the unique, strong, and enduring Persian identity manifested during this period. Depictions of leadership and power are observed within the images on Persian coins. The early gold daric (named after Darius) depicts Darius as a warrior, he is portrayed holding a bow and a spear; in most coins the leader is kneeling and appears to be ready to draw his bow or use his weapon. The Achaemenian coin’s art style remains consistant until the Greek invasion by Alexander the Great and the introduction of the silver drachm and tetradrachm. Greek deities were represented on the reverse of numerous coins during this time period. However, it is after the fall of the Sasanian Dynasty that the Islamic influence becomes apparent. Sasanian coins can be described as original works of art, unique and distinctive to the Persian Empire. Coinage is, for the first time in history, replaced by “a thin spread flan that was later to be used universally throughout the Arab world, in the Byzantine Empire and in medieval Europe” (Ferrier, 196). The main characteristic of Sasanian coins is the depiction of the leader on one side. The leader’s face is portrayed facing left and it is dominated by the amount of jewelry worn, including the crown. In some coins, the queen and prince are also portrayed next to the king’s face. An innovative feature is the text seen in Pahlavi language around the depiction of the leader; it is the king’s name. The reverse of the coin represented the religious aspect of the Persian Empire, Zoroastrianism. The Zoroastrian fire-altar is depicted with flames rising from it and flanked by two attendants. The king’s rulership year was written in Pahlavi on the left side, which has been a helpful tool for archaeologists and historians.
 * Tatiana Devia**

Coinage at the end of the Sasanian period was mainly characterized by the royal portrait, inscription in Pahlavi around the king’s face, and the Zoroastrian fire-altar on the reverse. All of these visual aspects were soon impacted by the transition to Islam. After the introduction of Islam, Persian coinage no longer depicted war scenes or Greek deities. At the end of the seventh century, coin Islamicisation began to take place, but the new Arab-Sasanian coinage retained strong Persian characteristics. The importance of representing power and authority through coin art remains visible; the leader is portrayed wearing jewelry and the crown. The new Arab-Sasanian coins omitted the fire-altar characteristic of Zoroastrianism and the introduction of Islam now becomes evident. The main aspect of Persian religion is not present any longer, however, the two attendants remained part of the reverse of the coin; they are portrayed with their arms upraised in prayer. An essential element of Islam, a declaration of faith was now in the Arabic inscription around the face of the leader: “In the name of Allah, there is no god but Allah alone.” Overall, the royal portrait and its characteristics remained part of the coin, an inscription around the leader’s face also remained; however, its language and text changed. The religious aspect of the Persian coinage art was still present, but the religion was now different and the Zoroastrian image was removed. Further changes to Persian coinage did happen. More Arab-looking and Islam-influenced coins appeared, however, this was not seen until many years after the introduction of Islam.

A considerable amount of glass objects dating back to the Sasanian period have been recovered from numerous sites throughout Persia, particularly from the northern part where glassmaking appeared to be prevalent. Glass was characterized by a wheel-cut decoration technique inherited from earlier Sasanian times. Glass objects were also characterized by being covered with circular facets that in most cases overlapped forming intercepting hexagons. Most excavated Sasanian dishes and bowls share common color characteristics such as being either colorless glass or having a greenish appearance. Archaeological evidence suggests that most Sasanian glass objects were first mould-casted and then finished by wheel-cutting. This is true for shallow dishes, bowls, goblets, and ewers. Hemispherical bowls that portrayed these characteristics have been dated back as early as the 1st century B.C. Consequently, we can agree that technique, texture, and color belong to Persian tradition. A new type of piriform vase resembles early hemispherical bowls, but is now characterized by a pair of twisted side-handles at the neck, a tapering amphora-shaped rhyton; this seems to be one of the only innovations of the period. Heavy faceting remains a constant characteristic throughout the glassmaking industry of the Sasanian period. When comparing different glass objects such as goblets, hemispherical bowls, ewers, and shallow bowls we can observe the same recurring technique of a cut decoration of arcading and square faceting. The same glassmaking techniques are obviously used in all glass products. For example a bowl and an ewer are completely different objects that serve different purposes; however, they look extremely similar with the same intersecting hexagons and cut-on-the-wheel technique. The main differences are in size, color, shape, and the addition of a side-handle at the neck. The addition of relief glass decoration developed during the Sasanian period. The relief technique consists of a series of discs running in parallel series around the body of a bowl followed by the grinding away of the ground on which they stand, eventually making the relief possible. More elaborate methods of relief decoration such as the projection of bosses set in the middle of circular facets are seen in later periods; the addition of color to the reliefs eventually developed as well. The introduction of Islam seems to have little impact on Sasanian art style and technique. Archaeological evidence suggests that traditional Persian art remained dominant many years after the Arab conquest. The main alteration seen right after the introduction of Islam is the new form observed in small flasks, which varied in styles characterized by rectangular cylindrical bodies and slightly averted necks. Bottles increased in size with a longer and more cylindrical neck; often appearing with a flaring or disc-like lip. The bowls increased in size becoming more cylindrical as well, they were also slightly modified by adding vertical and slightly sloping sides. Ewers with angular handlers and tapering necks terminating in a flaring lip with a pouring spout became more common right after the introduction of Islam. When comparing ewers from before and after the introduction of Islam, we can appreciate the unique Sasanian style and technique. Apparently, the new Islamic glassworkers inherited the Persian technique of wheel-cutting from the Sasanian predecessors, however, they introduced their own ‘personal touch’ by adding some decorations and variety of colors. Excavations at different sites such as Nishapur demonstrate that besides minimal alterations to shape and size, Persian art style dominated the image of glass objects. Visual representation was mainly impacted by development of new colors such as emerald-green and the addition of new decorating techniques including relief motifs. Some glass pieces often depict images of distinct Sasanian appearance, but the presence of Arabic inscriptions and dates confirm that the objects were created after the introduction of Islam. The excavation of glass objects demonstrates that decoration techniques such as the use of spirals and zigzags. These glass threads characteristic of Sasanian art style remained present throughout the Islamic period. In summary, Persian art represented in coins and glass objects was able to maintain its unique characteristics after the introduction of Islam. Arabic influence impacted certain aspects of visual representation while allowing Sasanian art style and techniques to remain dominant elements of the culture. The introduction of Islam is clearly seen in the new Arabic inscriptions found in coinage and glass right after the conquest. Coins’ shape, size, and width remained unchanged, but the Zoroastrianism aspect imprinted in the coin was removed. At the same time coins maintained their propaganda purposes by emphasizing the elements of power and authority. The transition from early Sasanian to Sasanian and eventually to Islam is clearly represented in the images portrayed in the coins. Coinage illustrated the different aspects of life that were experienced by the Persians. War images were often depicted but it then transitioned to representations of power and leadership by portraying leaders wearing jewelry. After the Arab conquest, coinage once again represents what was happening at the time and the transition that was taking place. Coinage depicted how Islam became the dominant religion and Arabic replaced Pahlavi. The unique style portrayed in glass objects was developed by the Sasanians, inherited by the Arabs and utilized for years after the introduction of Islam. Archaeological evidence demonstrates that shapes and sizes were altered, but the overall Persian context and technique remained a dominant aspect throughout the early Islamic period. It is obvious that the Arabs did try to maintain certain level of cohesion in art work as we are able to observe a smooth transition from Zoroastrianism to Islam and from Pahlavi to Arabic. Persians were not able to maintain their Zoroastrian beliefs or express them through artwork. However, their capacity to maintain their artistic style and technique was admirable.

Belloni, Gian, and Liliana Fedi Dall’Asen. __Iranian Art__. New York & Washington: Frederick A. Praeger Publishers, 1969. Curtis, Vesta; Hillenbrand, Robert and J.M. Rogers. __The Art and Archaeology of Ancient Persia__. New York: I.B. Tauris Publishers, 1998. Ferrier, R.W. __The Arts of Persia__. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1989. Halm Heinz. __The Arabs a Short History__. New Jersey: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2007. Hartmun Bobzin, __Muhammed__. Munich: C.H Beck, 2006. Hopkins, T.C.F. __Empires, Wars and Battles: The Middle East from Antiquity to the Rise of the New World__. New York: Tom Doherty Associates, LLC, 2007.
 * BIBLIOGRAPHY **