Architecture

 =Architecture =

Persian architecture is easily one of the most beautiful styles in existence. The beautiful colors, domes, and arches give the buildings a recognizable and unique aesthetic. That aesthetic is not as unique and original as it may seem. In fact, Persian architecture is the culmination of years of the intermixing of ideas. The sizable Persian Empire was able to draw from its many constituents and their vast knowledge along with originally Persian concepts and styles to create these amazing structures. Giovanni Curatola best encapsulates the art of the empire saying, “Persia collects the artistic examples and reworks them in its own autonomous and shaded language, its extremely original, precise, and unmistakable manner, and then disseminates the whole with its generous cultural imperialism (20047) .” What makes these structures even more impressive is the meaning and intention behind each one. There is no detail in Persian architecture that is without purpose, and this is evidenced by pre-Islamic and Islamic architecture.

Modern day Iran is only a sliver of what was once a large stretch of territory. The Persian Empire spanned Asia, Europe and Africa. Including regions well known for complex society such as the Indus River Valley, Crete, and Egypt, the empire reached a remarkable size and scope of authority. Rather than bringing uniformity to structures within their domain though, Persian architects were influenced by the many cultures within the empire. Given its vast territory, the fusion of ideas throughout the empire is most certainly plausible.

The willingness to incorporate the knowledge and techniques of its conquered lands into its own skill set highlights an important aspect of the Persian Empire: open-mindedness. It is a prevalent theme in both the major religions of the empire. In the Persian Empire’s pre-Islamic period, Zoroastrianism was the major religion. The religion’s belief system glorifies a sense of duality as well as individuality. Under the teachings of Zoroaster, the empire thrived while respecting non-Zoroastrians. When Islam became the major religion of the empire, it was clear that both belief systems shared commonalities. Marietta Stepaniants wrote the article “The Encounter of Zoroastrianism with Islam” and, in it, remarked that “… prior to this devastating (for Zoroastrianism) encounter [between Zoroastrianism and Islam], an indirect meeting had already taken place that [resulted in] the borrowing by Islam of a number of Zoroastrian ideas (Stepaniants 2002, 159) .” The major religions of the Persian Empire preached tolerance and, architecturally speaking, that lesson was clearly taken to heart.

The Persian worldview is a vital part of any discussion on the architecture of the region. According to M.M. Hejazi, author of //Historical Buildings of Iran,// “the ultimate object of Persian traditional art, and traditional architecture, was the Absolute. Architecture was a symbolic language by which archetypal Ideas could be expressed in patterns of which were conceivable by human understanding (Hejazi 1997, 7-8) .” Zoroastrianism, Islam, and general principles manifested themselves in Persian architecture through the choice of materials and specific features.

Hejazi explains that the choice of Persian building material was not based on convenience, “but on the basis of a profound sense of the nature of materials and consistent with the types of buildings, their function and the whole environment (199711) .” Construction materials included stone, brick, wood, metal, and mortar. The use of stone and wood was commonplace in Persia, dating back to the prehistoric era. The impressive capital Persepolis, for example, was built with these materials. During the Sassanian dynasty, ranging from 224 to 642 A.D., different materials were used more and more while variations were made on the standards (Hejazi 1997). Sassanian architecture continued the building traditions of the past, drawing from Seleucid and Parthian eras (Porter and Thevenart 2003). Giovanni Curatola and Gianroberto Scarcia, authors of //The// //Art and Architecture of Persia//, make mention of stucco and textiles which are explored further by M.M. Hejazi (200487-88). He writes that the technique of setting rubble in mortar gained popularity during this time (Hejazi 1997, 9). Brick also became more common, eventually turning into the go-to building material of the time for conforming to new techniques. The Sassanians saw wood become bracing for arched vaults, as opposed to roofing, beam, or column material. Even iron appeared in Sassanian structures for framing as well as fashioning strengthened joints for intersecting timber (Hejazi 1997, 13-14). With all the impressive work of Sassanian architects, Islamic Persia did not find much need for improvement.

When Persia was overtaken by Arab forces, the already existent architectural style was not immediately forced to undergo any major stylistic changes. Curatola and Scarcia write that “Persian Islam would devote its efforts, over a long period of time, to converting preexisting structures at sites that were acceptable for the new prevailing ideology, although from an architectural standpoint this could not have been particularly clear, even to the new rulers (2004137).” Arthur Upham Pope, author of //Persian Architecture,// wrote that “the conquering forces of Islam imposed no architecture because they had none to impose (Pope 1965, 76) .” Eventually though, Islamic Persia would make contributions or the architecture through its features.

One of the most significant architectural features of the Sassanian period was the dome. M.M. Hejazi writes that the transverse arch and vault solved “the structural problem of making window holes in the walls supporting a barrel vault (199723) .” The first dome was built, and remains standing, in Firuzabad. The structure, called the Ivan-i-Kharkhan, boasts massive walls and horizontal supports which keep the dome in place to this day (Hejazi 1997, 23-24). Palaces from the Sassanian dynasty included the vault, but there were also square-plan cupola (Porter and Thevenart 2003, 85). These techniques and the use of rubble and mortar made for some impressive palaces. One in particular was built at Ctesiphon. Called Taq-e Kasra, or Eyvan-e Kasra, the palace’s ruins only intimate how extraordinary the building was in its prime. Covering thirty acres of land, Taq-e Kasra would have been a spectacle of wealth and prestige. Excavations have uncovered notable decorations such as marble slabs and mosaic tesserae, exemplifying the shared ideas between the Persian architect and the Persian Empire. Islamic Persian features furthered Sassanian architectural strides. At this period, Hejazi says, “the Islamic architecture of Iran achieved an individuality, and a superiority, distinct from that of Muslim countries. The most important emphasis of this architecture is on beauty, and the most fundamental element is the dome (199725) .” During this time came the pointed arch; it is seen on the Tari-Khana in Damghan, Iran as early as 760 A.D. (Hejazi 1997, 25). The structure is the oldest intact Persian building, though it has been partially rebuilt. Tarik-Khana also displays unprecedented brick artwork along columns, walls, and high ceilings (Pope 1965, 78-85). The materials and features of Persian architecture united with its principles, making these structures all the more impressive.

One example of Persian principles tying into architecture comes from the funerary practices detailed in Zoroastrianism. Mazdeism called for the remains of the dead to be left for animal consumption and the bones to be retrieved later. This process, similar to the custom of other major Eastern religions, began with the body positioned in a dakhma, or tower of silence. These towers held the body while exposing it to natural predators. Once the flesh had been removed from the corpse, its bones were collected. This was concluded in Persia with the placement of bones in an ostodan (Giovani Curatola 2004, 94-96). Though the ostodan served one purpose, they came in various forms. Examples include “niches carved out of stone or onto slabs of stone in the earth, structures in the form of ‘fire altars’ or columns, and actual pits where the remains of entire cadavers have been found (200494) .” While dakhma and ostodan had religiously relevant purposes, the religious buildings of pre-Islamic Persia are now considered ambiguous, unlike Islamic religious structures.

The famous religious building of Islam full of significance is the mosque. Described in one of the five pillars of Islam as a place for communal prayer, mosques are vital to Islam (Keter 2008, 445). One of the most famous of these is the Congregational Mosque of Esfahan. This mosque is significant because of the many construction styles employed to create it. Sassanian columns decorated in stucco have been found through excavation. In the area around the mosque, archaeologists have discovered unfired brick as well (Giovani Curatola 2004, 139-140). Many mosques boast gardens, as it is based on a courtyard in Medina where Mohammad prayed (Keter 2008, 444). Yves Porter and Arthur Thévenart discuss the importance of courtyards in mosques. They suggest that the space is great for tranquility. In //Palaces and Gardens of Persia//, gardens of madrasas are also illustrated as calm-inducing and useful for study (2003143). In speaking of mosques, it is imperative to describe the minaret. Minarets, described by Keter, are towers that call the faithful to prayer (2008443). Minarets, a term meaning lighthouses, are commonly found near mosques. With prayer being as important as it is in Islam, minarets must be striking to be fully efficacious. According to M.M. Hejazi, the minaret dates back to prehistory when different cultural codes were engraved onto each (199775). Very few of these older minarets have survived due to building material, but Islamic Persia certainly improved on the design. The first to be made of brick was built in 922 AD, called the Maydan-i-Kuhna minaret of Qumm. It is cylindrical, typical of the popular image, complete with a spiral staircase. In later years minarets would become more impressive and picturesque, only enhancing the beauty of Persian architecture.

Both pre-Islamic and Islamic Persian architecture have displayed the importance of the Absolute. Including building materials, techniques, and reasoning, Sassanian and Islamic architecture show purpose beyond usual. M.M. Hejazi states that “the concept of architecture [in Persia was] concerned with the content and meaning of the work to be done, rather than with its mere functioning (19978) .” Minarets are a prime example in their beauty and decoration, as are mosques and other structures dating to the Persian Empire. Persians used the influence of other cultures to create the beautiful aesthetic their work is known for such as mosaic, and have in turn influenced cultures with their innovations such as the dome. Thus the scope of the empire, materials and features of Persian architecture, and the union of Persian principles and architecture have created a special art style that is much more than pretty.  References  Curatola, Giovanni, and Gianroberto Scarcia. // The Art and Architecture of Persia. // Translated by Marguerite Shore. New York: Abbeville Press Publishers, 2007. Giovani Curatola, Gianroberto Scarcia. //The Art and Architecture of Persia.// Translated by Marguerite Shore. New York: Abbeville Press Publishers, 2004. Hejazi, M.M. //Historical Buildings of Iran: their Architecture and Structure.// Great Britain: Computational Mechanics Publications, 1997. Keter, Maryanne. //A Kaleidescope of Religions: An Exploration of the World's Religions Volume I.// 2008. Pope, Arthur Uhpam. //Persian Architecture: The Triumph of Form and Color.// New York: George Braziller, Inc., 1965. Porter, Yves, and Arthur Thevenart. //Palaces and Gardens of Persia.// Translated by David Radinowicz. Paris: Editions Flammarion, 2003. Stepaniants, Marietta. "The Encounter of Zoroastrianism with Islam." //Philosophy East and West//, 2002: 159-172.  .